The quantized values of the Hall conductance are defined by fundamental constants ... This has led to the adoption of the Quantum Hall Effect as a standard for electrical resistance calibration.

V_{tpd}\) can also be calculated as \(I R\) where \(R\) is the load resistance. Voltage is a measure of energy, and energy is always conserved. So the EMF \(E\) of a cell is equal to the sum of ...